Speight J.G. The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum

4th edition. — CRC Press, 2006. — 954 p.The purpose of this book to provide the reader with a detailed overview of the chemistry and technology of petroleum as they evolve into the twenty-first century. With this in mind, many of the chapters that appeared in the third edition have been rewritten to include the latest developments in the refining industry. Updates on the evolving processes and new processes as well as various environmental regulations are presented. As part of this update, the chapters contain updates of the relevant processes that are used the industry evolves. The text still maintains its initial premise, to introduce the reader to the science of petroleum, beginning with its formation in the ground, eventually leading to the production of a wide variety of products and petrochemical intermediates. The text will also prove useful for those scientists and engineers already engaged in the petroleum industry as well as in the catalyst manufacturing industry who wish to gain a general overview or update of the science of petroleum.History, Occurrence, and RecoveryHistory and TerminologyHistorical Perspectives
Modern Perspectives
Definitions and Terminology
Native Materials
Petroleum
Heavy Oil
Bitumen
Wax
Asphaltite
Asphaltoid
Bituminous Rock and Bituminous Sand
Kerogen
Natural Gas
Manufactured Materials
Wax
Residuum (Residua)
Asphalt
Tar and Pitch
Coke
Synthetic Crude Oil
Derived Materials
Asphaltenes, Carbenes, and Carboids
Resins and Oils
Oil Prices
Pricing Strategies
Oil Price History
Future of Oil
EpilogClassificationIntroduction
Classification Systems
Classification as a Hydrocarbon Resource
Classification by Chemical Composition
Correlation Index
Density
API Gravity
Viscosity
Carbon Distribution
Viscosity–Gravity Constant
UOP Characterization Factor
Recovery Method
Pour Point
Miscellaneous Systems
Reservoir Classification
Identification and Quantification
FutureOrigin and OccurrenceIntroduction
Origin
Abiogenic Origin
Biogenic Origin
Deposition of Organic Matter
Establishment of Source Beds
Nature of the Source Material
Transformation of Organic Matter into Petroleum
Accumulation in Reservoir Sediments
In Situ Transformation of Petroleum
Differences between the Abiogenic Theory and the Biogenic Theory
Relationship of Petroleum Composition and Properties
Occurrence
Reserves
Conventional Petroleum
Natural Gas
Heavy Oil
Bitumen (Extra Heavy Oil)KerogenProperties
Composition
Classification
Isolation
Methods for Probing Kerogen Structure
Ultimate (Elemental) Analysis
Functional Group Analysis
Oxidation
Thermal Methods
Acid-Catalyzed Hydrogenolysis
Structural Models
Kerogen MaturationExploration, Recovery, and TransportationIntroduction
Exploration
Gravity Methods
Magnetic Methods
Seismic Methods
Electrical Methods
Electromagnetic Methods
Radioactive Methods
Borehole Logging
Drilling Operations
Preparing to Drill
Drilling Rig
Drilling Rig Components
Drilling
Well Completion
Recovery
Primary Recovery (Natural Methods)
Secondary Recovery
Enhanced Oil Recovery
Products and Product Quality
TransportationRecovery of Heavy Oil and Tar Sand BitumenIntroduction
Oil Mining
Tar Sand Mining
Hot-Water Process
Other Processes
Nonmining Methods
Steam-Based Processes
Combustion Processes
Other ProcessesComposition and PropertiesChemical CompositionIntroduction
Ultimate (Elemental) Composition
Chemical Components
Hydrocarbon Constituents
Paraffin Hydrocarbons
Cycloparaffin Hydrocarbons (Naphthenes)
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Nonhydrocarbon Constituents
Sulfur Compounds
Oxygen Compounds
Nitrogen Compounds
Metallic Constituents
Porphyrins
Chemical Composition by Distillation
Gases and Naphtha
Middle Distillates
Vacuum Residua (1050°F⁺)Fractional CompositionIntroduction
Distillation
Atmospheric Pressure
Reduced Pressures
Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation
Solvent Treatment
Asphaltene Separation
Influence of Solvent Type
Influence of the Degree of Dilution
Influence of Temperature
Influence of Contact Time
Fractionation
Adsorption
Chemical Factors
Fractionation Methods
General Methods
ASTM Methods
Chemical Methods
Acid Treatment
Molecular Complex Formation
Urea Adduction
Thiourea Adduction
Adduct Composition
Adduct Structure
Adduct Properties
Use of the DataPetroleum AnalysisIntroduction
Petroleum Assay
Physical Properties
Elemental (Ultimate) Analysis
Density and Specific Gravity
Viscosity
Surface and Interfacial Tension
Metals Content
Thermal Properties
Volatility
Liquefaction and Solidification
Carbon Residue
Aniline Point
Specific Heat
Latent Heat
Enthalpy or Heat Content
Thermal Conductivity
Pressure–Volume–Temperature Relationships
Heat of Combustion
Critical Properties
Electrical Properties
Conductivity
Dielectric Constant
Dielectric Strength
Dielectric Loss and Power Factor
Static Electrification
Optical Properties
Refractive Index
Optical Activity
Spectroscopic Methods
Infrared Spectroscopy
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Mass Spectrometry
Chromatographic Methods
Gas Chromatography
Simulated Distillation
Adsorption Chromatography
Gel Permeation Chromatography
Ion-Exchange Chromatography
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
Supercritical Fluid Chromatography
Molecular Weight
Use of the DataStructural Group AnalysisIntroduction
Methods for Structural Group Analysis
Physical Property Methods
Direct Method
Waterman Ring Analysis
Density Method
n.d.M. Method
Dispersion–Refraction Method
Density–Temperature Coefficient Method
Molecular Weight–Refractive Index Method
Miscellaneous Methods
Spectroscopic Methods
Infrared Spectroscopy
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
Mass Spectrometry
Electron Spin Resonance
Ultraviolet Spectroscopy
X-Ray Diffraction
Heteroatom Systems
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Sulfur
Metals
Miscellaneous MethodsAsphaltene ConstituentsSeparation
Composition
Molecular Weight
Reactions
Solubility Parameter
Structural AspectsStructure of PetroleumIntroduction
Molecular Species in Petroleum
Volatile Fractions
Resin Constituents
Composition
Resins (Structure)
Molecular Weight
Nonvolatile Oils
Composition
Structure
Molecular Weight
Chemical and Physical Structure of Petroleum
Stability or Instability of the Crude Oil System
Effects on Recovery and Refining
Effects on Recovery Operations
Effects on Refining OperationsInstability and IncompatibilityIntroduction
Instability and Incompatibility in Petroleum
Factors Influencing Instability and Incompatibility
Elemental Analysis
Density and Specific Gravity
Volatility
Viscosity
Asphaltene Content
Pour Point
Acidity
Metals (Ash) Content
Water Content, Salt Content, and Bottom Sediment and Water (BS&W)
Methods for Determining Instability and Incompatibility
Effect of Asphaltene ConstituentsRefiningIntroduction to Refining Processes
Introduction
Dewatering and Desalting
Early Processes
Distillation
Historical Development
Modern Processes
Atmospheric Distillation
Vacuum Distillation
Azeotropic and Extractive Distillation
Thermal Methods
Historical Development
Modern Processes
Thermal Cracking
Visbreaking
Coking
Catalytic Methods
Historical Development
Modern Processes
Catalysts
Hydroprocesses
Historical Development
Modern Processes
Hydrofining
Reforming
Historical Development
Modern Processes
Thermal Reforming
Catalytic Reforming
Catalysts
Isomerization
Historical Development
Modern Processes
Catalysts
Alkylation Processes
Historical Development
Modern Processes
Catalysts
Polymerization Processes
Historical Development
Modern Processes
Catalysts
Solvent Process
Deasphalting
Dewaxing
Refining Heavy Feedstocks
Petroleum Products
PetrochemicalsRefining ChemistryIntroduction
Cracking
Thermal Cracking
Catalytic Cracking
Dehydrogenation
Dehydrocyclization
Hydrogenation
Hydrocracking
Hydrotreating
Isomerization
Alkylation
Polymerization
Process Chemistry
[i]Thermal Chemistry
Hydroconversion Chemistry
Chemistry in the Refinery
Visbreaking
Hydroprocessing

Distillation

[i]Introduction
Pretreatment
Atmospheric and Vacuum Distillation
Atmospheric Distillation
Vacuum Distillation
Equipment
Columns
Packings
Trays
Other Processes
Stripping
Rerunning
Stabilization and Light End Removal
Superfractionation
Azeotropic Distillation
Extractive Distillation
Process Options for Heavy FeedstocksThermal CrackingIntroduction
Early Processes
Commercial Processes
Visbreaking
Coking Processes
Delayed Coking
Fluid Coking
Flexicoking
Process Options for Heavy Feedstocks
Aquaconversion
Asphalt Coking Technology (ASCOT) Process
Comprehensive Heavy Ends Reforming Refinery (Cherry-P) Process
Decarbonizing
ET-II Process
Eureka Process
Fluid Thermal Cracking (FTC) Process
High Conversion Soaker Cracking (HSC) Process
Mixed-Phase Cracking
Naphtha Cracking
Selective Cracking
Shell Thermal Cracking
Tervahl T Process
Vapor-Phase CrackingCatalytic CrackingIntroduction
Early Processes
Commercial Processes
Fixed-Bed Processes
Fluid-Bed Processes
Fluid-Bed Catalytic Cracking
Model IV Fluid-Bed Catalytic Cracking Unit
Orthoflow Fluid-Bed Catalytic Cracking
Shell Two-Stage Fluid-Bed Catalytic Cracking
Universal Oil Products (UOP) Fluid-Bed Catalytic Cracking
Moving-Bed Processes
Airlift Thermofor Catalytic Cracking (Socony Airlift TCC Process)
Houdresid Catalytic Cracking
Houdriflow Catalytic Cracking
Suspensoid Catalytic Cracking
Process Options for Heavy Feedstocks
Asphalt Residual Treating (ART) Process
Residue Fluid Catalytic Cracking (HOC) Process
Heavy Oil Treating (HOT) Process
R2R Process
Reduced Crude Oil Conversion (RCC) Process
Shell FCC Process
S&W Fluid Catalytic Cracking Process
Catalysts
Catalyst Treatment
Demet
Met-X
Process Parameters
Reactor
Coking
Catalyst Variables
Process Variables
AdditivesDeasphalting and Dewaxing ProcessesIntroduction
Commercial Processes
Deasphalting Process
Process Options for Heavy Feedstocks
Deep Solvent Deasphalting Process
Demex Process
MDS Process
Residuum Oil Supercritical Extraction (ROSE) Process
Solvahl Process
Lube Deasphalting
Dewaxing ProcessesHydrotreating and DesulfurizationIntroduction
Process Parameters and Reactors
Hydrogen Partial Pressure
Space Velocity
Reaction Temperature
Catalyst Life
Feedstock Effects
Reactors
Downflow Fixed-Bed Reactor
Upflow Expanded-Bed Reactor
Demetallization Reactor (Guard Bed Reactor)
Commercial Processes
Autofining
Ferrofining
Gulf-HDS
Hydrofining
Isomax
Ultrafining
Unifining
Unionfining
Process Options for Heavy Feedstocks
Residuum Desulfurization and Vacuum Residuum Desulfurization Process
Residfining Process
Catalysts
Biodesulfurization
Gasoline and Diesel Fuel PolishingHydrocrackingIntroduction
Commercial Processes
Process Design
Single-Stage and Two-Stage Options
Process Options for Heavy Feedstocks
Asphaltenic Bottom Cracking (ABC) Process
CANMET Hydrocracking Process
H-Oil Process
Hydrovisbreaking (HYCAR) Process
Hyvahl F Process
IFP Hydrocracking Process
Isocracking Process
LC-Fining Process
MAKfining Process
Microcat-RC Process
Mild Hydrocracking Process
MRH Process
RCD Unibon (BOC) Process
Residfining Process
Residue Hydroconversion (RHC) Process
Tervahl-H Process
Unicracking Process
Veba Combi Cracking Process
CatalystsHydrogen ProductionIntroduction
Processes Requiring Hydrogen
Hydrotreating
Hydrocracking
Feedstocks
Process Chemistry
Commercial Processes
[i]Heavy Residue Gasification and Combined Cycle Power Generation
Hybrid Gasification Process
Hydrocarbon Gasification
Hypro Process
Pyrolysis Processes
Shell Gasification (Partial Oxidation) Process
Steam–Methane Reforming
Steam–Naphtha Reforming
Synthesis Gas Generation
Texaco Gasification (Partial Oxidation) Process
[i]Catalysts
Reforming Catalysts
Shift Conversion Catalysts
Methanation Catalysts
Hydrogen Purification
Wet Scrubbing
Pressure-Swing Adsorption Units
Membrane Systems
Cryogenic Separation
Hydrogen ManagementProduct ImprovementIntroduction
Reforming
Thermal Reforming
Catalytic Reforming
Fixed-Bed Processes
Moving-Bed Processes
Fluid-Bed Processes
Isomerization
Butamer Process
Butomerate Process
Hysomer Process
Iso-Kel Process
Isomate Process
Isomerate Process
Penex Process
Pentafining Process
Alkylation
Cascade Sulfuric Acid Alkylation
Hydrogen Fluoride Alkylation
Polymerization
Thermal Polymerization
Solid Phosphoric Acid Condensation
Bulk Acid Polymerization
Catalysts
Reforming Processes
Isomerization Processes
Alkylation Processes
Polymerization ProcessesProduct TreatingIntroduction
Commercial Processes
Caustic Processes
Dualayer Distillate Process
Dualayer Gasoline Process
Electrolytic Mercaptan Process
Ferrocyanide Process
Lye Treatment
Mercapsol Process
Polysulfide Treatment
Sodasol Process
Solutizer Process
Steam Regenerative Caustic Treatment
Unisol Process
Acid Processes
Nalfining Process
Sulfuric Acid Treatment
Clay Processes
Alkylation Effluent Treatment
Arosorb Process
Bauxite Treatment
Continuous Contact Filtration Process
Cyclic Adsorption Process
Gray Clay Treatment
Percolation Filtration Process
Thermofor Continuous Percolation Process
Oxidative Processes
Bender Process
Copper Sweetening Process
Doctor Process
Hypochlorite Sweetening Process
Inhibitor Sweetening Process
Merox Process
Solvent Processes
Deasphalting
Solvent Refining
DewaxingGas ProcessingGas Streams from Crude Oil
Gas Streams from Natural Gas
Gas Cleaning
Water Removal
Absorption
Solid Adsorbents
Use of Membranes
Liquids Removal
Extraction
Absorption
Fractionation of Natural Gas Liquids
Nitrogen Removal
Acid Gas Removal
Enrichment
Fractionation
Claus ProcessProductsIntroduction
Gaseous Fuels
Composition
Manufacture
Properties and Uses
Gasoline
Composition
Manufacture
Properties and Uses
Octane Numbers
Additives
Solvents (Naphtha)
Composition
Manufacture
Properties and Uses
Kerosene
Composition
Manufacture
Properties and Uses
Fuel Oil
Lubricating Oil
Composition
Manufacture
Chemical Refining Processes
Hydroprocessing
Solvent Refining Processes
Catalytic Dewaxing
Solvent Dewaxing
Finishing Processes
Older Processes
Properties and Uses
Other Oil Products
White Oil
Insulating Oil
Insecticides
Grease
Lime Soap
Soda Soap
Lithium and Barium Soap
Aluminum Soap
Cold Sett Grease
Wax
Composition
Manufacture
Properties and Uses
Asphalt
Composition
Manufacture
Properties and Uses
Coke
Sulfonic Acids
Acid Sludge
Product BlendingPetrochemicalsIntroduction
Chemicals from Paraffins
Halogenation
Nitration
Oxidation
Alkylation
Thermolysis
Chemicals from Olefins
Hydroxylation
Halogenation
Polymerization
Oxidation
Miscellaneous
Chemicals from Aromatics
Chemicals from Acetylene
Chemicals from Natural Gas
Inorganic Petrochemicals
Synthesis GasEnvironmental IssuesEnvironmental Aspects of RefiningIntroduction
Definitions
Environmental Regulations
Clean Air Act Amendments
Water Pollution Control Act (The Clean Water Act)
Safe Drinking Water Act
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
Toxic Substances Control Act
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act
Occupational Safety and Health Act
Oil Pollution Act
Hazardous Materials Transportation Act
Process Analysis
Gaseous Emissions
Liquid Effluents
Solid Effluents
EpilogRefinery WastesIntroduction
Process Wastes
Desalting
Distillation
Thermal Cracking and Visbreaking
Coking Processes
Fluid Catalytic Cracking
Hydrocracking and Hydrotreating
Catalytic Reforming
Alkylation
Isomerization
Polymerization
Deasphalting
Dewaxing
Gas Processing
Types of Waste
Gases and Lower Boiling Constituents
Higher Boiling Constituents
Wastewater
Solid Waste
Waste Toxicity
Refinery Outlook
Hazardous Waste Regulations
Regulatory Background
Requirements
Management of Refinery WasteEnvironmental AnalysisIntroduction
Petroleum and Petroleum Products
Leachability and Toxicity
Total Petroleum Hydrocarbons
Gas Chromatographic Methods
Infrared Spectroscopy Methods
Gravimetric Methods
Immunoassay Methods
Petroleum Group Analysis
Thin Layer Chromatography
Immunoassay
Gas Chromatography
High-Performance Liquid Chromatography
Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry
Petroleum Fractions
Assessment of the MethodsConversion Factors
Glossary