Versnel H.S. Triumphus: An Inquiry Into the Origin, Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph

Brill, 1970. — 418 p.According to Orosius no fewer than 320 triumphs were celebrated during the period between the founding of Rome and the reign of Vespasian. Nor was this all; also in subsequent years triumphs were held, be it at increasingly long intervals, until Honorius in 403 C.E. combined his accession to the consulate with the last official triumph known to us. The entire history of Rome has thus been marked by a ceremony which testified to the power of Rome, its mission of conquest and domination, and to the courage of its soldiers. Primarily, however, the triumph characterized the greatness of Rome as being due, on the one hand, to the excellence of the victorious general, and, on the other, to the favour of the supreme god, who, optimus maximus, ensured the continuance and the prosperity of the Roman empire. In no other Roman ceremony do god and man approach each other as closely as they do in the triumph.