Carlson D.H., Plummer C.C., Hammersley L. Physical Geology

McGraw-Hill, 2015. — 672 p. — ISBN: 0078096103.Physical Geology, 15th edition, is the latest refinement of a classic introductory text that has helped countless students learn basic physical geology concepts for over 25 years. Students taking introductory physical geology to fulfill a science elective, as well as those contemplating a career in geology, will appreciate the accessible writing style and depth of coverage in Physical Geology. Hundreds of carefully rendered illustrations and accompanying photographs correlate perfectly with the chapter descriptions to help readers quickly grasp new geologic concepts. Numerous chapter learning tools and a website further assist students in their study of physical geology.Meet The Authors
Introducing Geology, the Essentials of Plate Tectonics, and Other Important Concepts
Who Needs Geology?
Supplying Things We Need
Protecting the Environment
Avoiding Geologic Hazards
Understanding Our Surroundings
Earth Systems
An Overview of Physical Geology—Important Concepts
Internal Processes: How the Earth’s Internal Heat Engine Works
Earth’s Interior
The Theory of Plate Tectonics
Divergent Boundaries
Convergent Boundaries
Transform Boundaries
Surficial Processes: The Earth’s External Heat Engine
Geologic TimeAtoms, Elements, and Minerals
Minerals and Rocks
Atoms and Elements
Ions and Bonding
Crystalline Structures
The Silicon-Oxygen Tetrahedron
Nonsilicate Minerals
Variations in Mineral Structures and Compositions
The Physical Properties of Minerals
Color
Streak
Luster
Hardness
External Crystal Form
Cleavage
Fracture
Specific Gravity
Special Properties
Chemical Tests
The Many Conditions of Mineral FormationIgneous Rocks, the Origin and Evolution of Magma, and Intrusive Activity
The Rock Cycle
The Rock Cycle and Plate Tectonics
Igneous Rocks
Classification of Igneous Rocks
Igneous Rock Textures
Chemistry of Igneous Rocks
Identifying Igneous Rocks
How Magma Forms
Heat for Melting Rock
The Geothermal Gradient and Partial Melting
Decompression Melting
Addition of Water (Flux Melting)
How Magmas of Different Compositions Evolve
Sequence of Crystallization and Melting
Differentiation
Partial Melting
Assimilation
Magma Mixing
Intrusive Bodies
Shallow Intrusive Structures
Intrusives that Crystallize at Depth
Abundance and Distribution of plutonic Rocks
Explaining Igneous Activity by Plate Tectonics
Igneous Processes at Divergent Boundaries
Intraplate Igneous Activity
Igneous Processes at Convergent BoundariesVolcanism and Extrusive Rocks
What Are Volcanoes and Why Should We Study Them?
Creation of New Land
Geothermal Energy
Effect on Climate
Eruptive Violence and Physical Characteristics of Lava
The Eruptive Products of Volcanoes
Effusive Eruptions
Explosive Eruptions
Types of Volcanoes
Shield Volcanoes
Cinder Cones
Composite Volcanoes
Lava Domes
Calderas
Living with Volcanoes
Volcanic Hazards
Monitoring Volcanoes
Plate Tectonics and Volcanism
Volcanic Activity at Divergent Boundaries
Volcanic Activity at Convergent Boundaries
Within-Plate Volcanic ActivityWeathering and Soil
Weathering, Erosion, and Transportation
How Weathering Changes Rocks
Effects of Weathering
Mechanical Weathering
Pressure Release
Frost Action
Other Processes
Chemical Weathering
Role of Oxygen
Role of Acids
Solution Weathering
Chemical Weathering of Feldspar
Chemical Weathering of Other Minerals
Weathering Products
Factors Affecting Weathering
Soil
Soil Horizons
Factors Affecting Soil Formation
Soil Erosion
Soil ClassificationSediment and Sedimentary Rocks
Sediment
Transportation
Deposition
Preservation
Lithification
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Detrital Rocks
Breccia and Conglomerate
Sandstone
The Fine-Grained Rocks
Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
Carbonate Rocks
Chert
Evaporites
Organic Sedimentary Rocks
Coal
The Origin of Oil and Gas
Sedimentary Structures
Fossils
Formations
Interpretation of Sedimentary Rocks
Source Area
Environment of Deposition
Transgression and Regression
Tectonic Setting of Sedimentary RocksMetamorphism and Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphism
Factors Controlling the Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks
Temperature
Pressure
Composition of the Parent Rock
Fluids
Time
Classification of Metamorphic Rocks
Nonfoliated Rocks
Foliated Rocks
Types of Metamorphism
Contact Metamorphism
Hydrothermal Metamorphism
Regional Metamorphism
Metamorphic Grade
Pressure and Temperature Paths in Time
Plate Tectonics and Metamorphism
Foliation and Plate Tectonics
Pressure-Temperature Regimes
Hydrothermal Metamorphism and Plate TectonicsTime and Geology
The Key to the Past
Relative Time
Principles Used to Determine Relative Age
Unconformities
Correlation
The Standard Geologic Time Scale
Numerical Age
Isotopic Dating
Uses of Isotopic Dating
Combining Relative and Numerical Ages
Age of the Earth
Comprehending Geologic TimeMass Wasting
Mass Wasting
Controlling Factors in Mass Wasting
Gravity
Water
Triggers
Classification of Mass Wasting
Rate of Movement
Type of Material
Type of Movement
Common Types of Mass Wasting
Creep
Flows
Falls
Slides
Underwater Landslides
Preventing Landslides
Preventing Mass Wasting of Soil
Preventing Rockfalls and Rockslides on HighwaysStreams and Floods
The Hydrologic Cycle
Running Water
Drainage Basins
Drainage Patterns
Factors Affecting Stream Erosion and Deposition
Velocity
Gradient
Channel Shape and Roughness
Discharge
Stream Erosion
Stream Transportation of Sediment
Stream Deposition
Bars
Braided Streams
Meandering Streams and Point Bars
Flood Plains
Deltas
Alluvial Fans
Stream Valley Development
Downcutting and Base Level
The Concept of a Graded Stream
Lateral Erosion
Headward Erosion
Stream Terraces
Incised Meanders
Flooding
Urban Flooding
Flash Floods
Reducing Flood RiskGroundwater
The Importance of Groundwater
The Storage of Groundwater
The Water Table
Porosity and Permeability
Aquifers
The Movement of Groundwater
Wells
Springs and Streams
Contamination of Groundwater
Balancing Withdrawal and Recharge
Geologic Effects of Groundwater
Caves
Karst Topography
Other Effects of Groundwater
Hot Water Underground
Geothermal EnergyGlaciers and Glaciation
What Is a Glacier?
Types of Glaciers
Glaciers—Where They Are, How They Form and Move
Distribution of Glaciers
Formation and Growth of Glaciers
Movement of Valley Glaciers
Movement of Ice Sheets
Glacial Erosion
Erosional Landscapes Associated with Alpine Glaciation
Erosional Landscapes Associated with Continental Glaciation
Glacial Deposition
Moraines
Outwash
Glacial Lakes and Varves
Past Glaciation
Direct Effects of Past Glaciation in North America
Indirect Effects of Past Glaciation
Evidence for Older GlaciationDeserts and Wind Action
Where and How Deserts Form
Some Characteristics of Deserts
Desert Features in the Southwestern United States
Wind Action
Wind Erosion and Transportation
Wind DepositionWaves, Beaches, and Coasts
Shoreline Dynamics
How Do Waves Form?
Surf
What Happens When Waves Reach the Shore?
Wave Refraction
Longshore Currents
Rip Currents
How Do Beaches Develop?
Why Does Sand Move along a Shoreline?
Human Interference with Sand Drift
Sources of Sand on Beaches
Why Are There Different Types of Coasts?
Erosional Coasts
Depositional Coasts
Drowned Coasts
Uplifted Coasts
The Biosphere and CoastsGeologic Structures
Tectonic Forces at Work
Stress and Strain in the Earth’s Lithosphere
How Do Rocks Behave When Stressed?
How Do We Record and Measure Geologic Structures?
Geologic Maps and Field Methods
Folds
Geometry of Folds
Interpreting Folds
Fractures in Rock
Joints
FaultsEarthquakes
Causes of Earthquakes
Seismic Waves
Body Waves
Surface Waves
Locating and Measuring Earthquakes
Determining the Location of an Earthquake
Measuring the Size of an Earthquake
Location and Size of Earthquakes in the United States
Earthquake-Related Hazards
Ground Motion
Fire
Ground Failure
Aftershocks
Tsunami
World Distribution of Earthquakes
First-Motion Studies of Earthquakes
Earthquakes and Plate Tectonics
Earthquakes at Plate Boundaries
Subduction Angle
Earthquake Prediction and Forecasting
Earthquake Precursors and Prediction
Earthquake Forecasting
Reducing Earthquake Damage and RiskEarth’s Interior and Geophysical Properties
How Is Earth’s Interior Studied?
Evidence from Seismic Waves
Earth’s Internal Structure
The Crust
The Mantle
The Core
Isostasy
Gravity Measurements
Earth’s Magnetic Field
Magnetic Reversals
Magnetic Anomalies
Earth’s Temperature
Geothermal Gradient
Heat FlowThe Sea Floor
Origin of the Ocean
Methods of Studying the Sea Floor
Features of the Sea Floor
Continental Shelves and Continental Slopes
Submarine Canyons
Passive Continental Margins
Active Continental Margins
Mid-Oceanic Ridges
Fracture Zones
Seamounts, Guyots, and Aseismic Ridges
Reefs
Sediments of the Sea Floor
Oceanic Crust and Ophiolites
The Age of the Sea Floor
The Sea Floor and Plate TectonicsPlate Tectonics—The Unifying Theory
The Early Case for Continental Drift
Skepticism about Continental Drift
The Revival of Continental Drift
Evidence from Paleomagnetism
Geologic Evidence for Continental Drift
History of Continental Positions
Seafloor Spreading
Hess’s Driving Force
Explanations
Plates and Plate Motion
How Do We Know That Plates Move?
Marine Magnetic Anomalies
Another Test: Fracture Zones and Transform Faults
Measuring Plate Motion Directly
Divergent Plate Boundaries
Transform Boundaries
Convergent Plate Boundaries
Ocean-Ocean Convergence
Ocean-Continent Convergence
Continent-Continent Convergence
Do Plate Boundaries Move?
Can Plates Change in Size?
The Attractiveness of Plate Tectonics
What Causes Plate Motions?
Mantle Convection
Ridge Push
Slab Pull
Trench Suction
Mantle Plumes and Hot Spots
A Final NoteMountain Belts and the Continental Crust
Mountains and Mountain Building
Characteristics of Major Mountain Belts
Size and Alignment
Ages of Mountain Belts and Continents
Thickness and Characteristics of Rock Layers
Patterns of Folding and Faulting
Metamorphism and Plutonism
Normal Faulting
Thickness and Density of Rocks
Features of Active Mountain Ranges
Evolution of Mountain Belts
Orogenies and Plate Convergence
Post-Orogenic Uplift and Block-Faulting
The Growth of Continents
Displaced TerranesGlobal Climate Change
Weather, Climate, and Climate Change
Concerns Over Modern Climate Change
Understanding the Atmosphere
Composition
Structure
Energy from the Sun
Blackbody Radiation
The Greenhouse Effect
Causes of Climate Change
Solar Variability and the Orbital Theory of Climate
Variations in the Earth’s Albedo
Greenhouse Gases
Clouds and Particles
Volcanoes
Plate Tectonics
A Brief History of Earth’s Climate
Climate Millions of Years Ago
Climate Over the Last Million Years
Climate Over the Last Few Thousand Years to Present
Climate Change in the Modern Age
Temperature
Precipitation
Sea Ice and Glacier Melt
Sea-Level Rise
Climate Models
The IPCC
Impacts and Consequences of Global Climate Change
Biodiversity and Agriculture
Ocean Acidification
Coastal Regions and Sea-Level Rise
Geoengineering
Solar Radiation Management
Carbon Management
Decreasing Emissions of Greenhouse Gases
Fate of Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide
Scientific ConsensusResources
Reserves and Resources
Energy Resources
Nonrenewable Energy Resources
Fracking
Renewable Energy Sources
Metallic Resources
Ores Formed by Igneous Processes
Ores Formed by Surface Processes
Mining
Nonmetallic Resources
Construction Materials
Fertilizers and Evaporites
Other Nonmetallics
Resources, the Environment, and SustainabilityThe Earth’s Companions
The Earth in Space
The Sun
The Solar System
The Milky Way and the Universe
Origin of the Planets
The Solar Nebula
Formation of the Planets
Formation of Moons
Final Stages of Planet Formation
Formation of Atmospheres
Other Planetary Systems
Portraits of the Planets
Our Moon
Mercury
Venus
Mars
Why Are the Terrestrial Planets So Different?
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Pluto and the Ice Dwarves
Minor Objects of the Solar System
Meteors and Meteorites
Meteorites
Asteroids
Comets
Giant Impacts
Giant Meteor ImpactsAppendices A–G