Grous A. Applied Metrology for Manufacturing Engineering

ISTE Ltd., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011. — 677 p. — ISBN: 978-1-84821-188-9.Applied Metrology for Manufacturing Engineering, stands out from traditional works due to its educational aspect. Illustrated by tutorials and laboratory models, it is accessible to users of non-specialists in the fields of design and manufacturing. Chapters can be viewed independently of each otherThis book focuses on technical geometric and dimensional tolerances as well as mechanical testing and quality control. It also provides references and solved examples to help professionals and teachers to adapt their models to specific cases. It reflects recent developments in ISO and GPS standards and focuses on training that goes hand in hand with the progress of practical work and workshops dealing with measurement and dimensioningFundamentals of Error Analysis and their Uncertainties in Dimensional Metrology Applied to Science and Technology
Introduction to uncertainties in dimensional metrology
Definition of standards
Definition of errors and uncertainties in dimensional metrology
What is the difference between error and uncertainty?
Why make a calculation of errors’ uncertainty?
Reminder of basic errors and uncertainties
Properties of uncertainty propagation
Reminder of random basic variables and their functions
Properties of random variables of common functions
Errors and their impact on the calculation of uncertainties
Accidental or fortuitous errors
Systematic errors
Errors due to apparatus
Errors due to the operator
Errors due to temperature differences
Random errors
Applications based on errors in dimensional metrology
Absolute error ~G° = Ea
Relative error G = Er
Systematic error
Accidental error (fortuitous error)
Expansion effect on a bore/shaft assembly
Correction of possible measurement errors
Overall error and uncertainty
Uncertainty due to calibration methods
Capability of measuring instruments
Estimation of uncertainties of measurement errors in metrology
Definitions of simplified equations of uncertainty measurements
Issue of mathematical statistics evaluation of uncertainties in dimensional metrology
Uncertainty range, coverage factor k and range of relative uncertainty
Approaches for determining type A and B uncertainties according to the GUMProperties
Brief description of type-A uncertainty evaluation method
Type-B uncertainty methods
Principle of uncertainty calculation: types A and B
Error on the repeated measure: calculation of compound standard uncertainty
Applications on the laboratory calculations of uncertainties
Simplified models for the calculations of measurement uncertainties
Laboratory model of dimensional metrology
Measurement uncertainty evaluation discussion
Contribution of the GUM in dimensional metrologyFundamentals of Dimensional and Geometrical Tolerances According to ISO, CSA (Canada), and ANSI (USA)
Introduction to geometrical products specification
Dimensional tolerances and adjustments
Adjustments with clearance: Ø80 H8/f
Adjustments with uncertain clearance: Ø80 H7/k
Adjustments with clamping or interference
Approach for the calculation of an adjustment with clearance
Dimensioning according to ANSI and CSA
Definition of geometrical form constraints
International vocabulary of metrology
Local nominal dimensions according to ISO/DIS
Definition of the axis extracted from a cylinder or a cone
Definition of the local size extracted from a cylinder
Definition of local size extracted from two parallel surfaces
Notion of simulated element and associated element
GPS standard covering ISO/TR
Principle of independency according to ISO 8015-1985 (classic case)
Envelope requirement according to ISO
Maximum material principle according to ISO 2692-1988 (classic case)
Form tolerances
Flatness tolerances
Straightness tolerance
Roundness
Cylindricity
Orientation tolerances
Parallelism (straight line/straight line)
Parallelism plane/plane (plane/straight line) on CMM
A workshop exercise on dimensional metrology
Angularity
Positioning tolerances
Tolerance of single radial flap (radial runout)
Tolerance of single axial flap (axial runout)
Zone of tolerance applied to a restricted portion of the piece (as in // and in)
Projected tolerance zone according to ISO 10578 (classic case)
Conicity according to ISO
Conicity calculation: slope, tan(D), large and small diameter
Linear dimensional tolerances
Consequence: size tolerancing
Consequence: independency with regard to the form
Positioning a group of elements
GPS standards according to the report CR ISO/TR14638 of
Rational dimensioning for a controlled metrology: indices of capability and performance indices statistical process specification
Summary and discussionMeasurement and Controls Using Linear and Angular Standards
Key dimensional metrology standards
Time and frequency standards
Force and pressure standards
Electrical standards
Temperature standards
Photometric standards
Measurement, comparison, and control
Meter, time, and mass
The meter
Time
Mass
Deformations and mechanical causes of errors
Quantitative assessment of gauge blocks
Assessment of cylindrical rod and ball gauges (spheres). Local crashing of cylindrical rods K
Recommendations for correct block staking
Punctual contact (spherical buttons, beads, and thread flanks of a thread buffer) K2°
Total flattening of cylindrical gauges (kp)
Total flattening of balls (spheres)Ksph
Measurement and precision with micrometer
Marble, V-blocks, gauge blocks, and dial gauges
Control of flat surfaces on marble
Measurement by comparison of small marble surfaces
V-shaped block
Parallel blocks
Dial gauge
Mechanical dial gauges with inside and outside contacts
Sizes of fixed dimensions, or Max–Min
Bore gauges
Bore gauges
Plain rings
Spindle bores
Inside gauges (micrometer)
Depth gauges
Telescopic bore gauges
Example of a laboratory model
Table of experimental measurements
Precision height
Directions for use of height masters (or height gauges)
Adjustable parallel gauge blocks and holding accessories
Example of a laboratory model
Table of experimental measurements
Precision height gauge check master
Caliper gauge control
The universal protractor vernier
Direct angle measurement
Indirect angular measurement
Vernier height gauge
Gear tooth vernier caliper
Vernier calipers
Various measurements of a dimension using a caliper
Possible errors when using a caliper
Micrometer or Palmer
Principle of micrometric screw
Manipulations to perform a measurement with a Palmer
Adjusting micrometers
Control of parallelism and flatness of the micrometer’s measuring surfaces using optical glass
Measurement of screw threads by three-wire method
Ruler and gauges for the control of screw threads
Micrometer with fine point
Disc micrometers to measure shoulder distances
Outside micrometer caliper typeSurface Control
Control and measurement of angles
Angles defects
Surfaces of revolution
Fundamentals of the analysis of conical surfaces control
Control by comparison to a standard
Using the buffer and the cone-shaped ring
Measuring angles with gauges and balls
Principle of measurement called sine
Metric thread (M) measurement on gauge
Laboratory control of the conicity with balls and gauges
Controls of cones on machine-tools
Method of swivel slide
Method of lateral displacement of the tailstock of a lathe
Control of flat surfaces
Properties of a dihedron
Control of large flat surfaces
Control of cylindrical surfaces (of revolution)
Cylindrical surface
Associated definitions
Cylindricity defects
Control of a cylinder on three contact tips on a V-block
Practical control of the straightness of the generatrix of a cylinder
Control of the perpendicularity of the generatrix and the drive circle
Control of surfaces of revolution with spherical forms
Description and functioning of a spherometer
Laboratory (workshop) simulated on the appropriate use of spherometer
Control and measurement with spherometer (second approach)
Generating a spherical surface
Control of the relative positions of surfaces
Control of parallelism for surfaces or edges
Control of parallelism for two dihedral edges
Control of the angular position of surfaces, distance between the axis of a bore and the plane
Control of distance between the sphere center and the plane
Control of the position of the edge of a dihedron
Methods of dimensional measurement
Direct method (calibration curve)
Indirect method (by comparison or differential)
Indirect method known under the term at zero
Measurement of flatness defect
Method for measuring flatness deviation
Operating procedure for flatness deviation measurement
Relative position of measuring instruments and the workpiece
Control of the perpendicularity of a line to a plane
Relative position of measuring instruments and the workpiece
Other controls of dimensions in relative positions
Direct measurement of an intrinsic dimension using micrometer
Summary on relative positionsOpto-Mechanical Metrology
Introduction to measurement by optical methods
Description of profile projector (type Mitutoyo PH-350H)
Presentation of the main operating functions of GEOCHECK
Selecting the point of origin (preset operation, zero reset)
The main functions of optical comparator
Metrology laboratories on profile projector
Plates measurement standards for profile projector
Principle of interferential metrology (example: prism spectroscope)
Function of two sine-waves interference
Statistical description
Flatness measurement by optical planes
Principle of interferoscope
Control of parallelism (case of parallel gauge-blocks)
Numerical example of laboratoryControl of Surface States
Introduction to surface states control for solid materials
Terminology and definition of surface states criteria
Surface states (texture) and sampling lengths
Waviness parameters
Instruments for measuring surface state
Selecting cutoff for roughness measurements
Symbols used in engineering drawings to describe the appropriate surface state according to ANSI/ASME Y14. 36M
Surface characteristics in a drawing using CAD–CAO software
Expressions of the terms of surface roughness
Description of the main surface states
Presentation of Mitutoyo Surftest
Components of rugosimeter
Calibration of Mitutoyo rugosimeter
Measurement
Practical example on the application of Surftest
Portable rugosimeter SJ-400 of Mitutoyo
The main normalized parameters of surface states used in the industry, their formulas and definitions
Waviness parameters
Example on the control of the roughness of a plate grade
Questionnaire and laboratory approach
Table of calibrated measurement results in [micrometer] and [microinch]
Plotting using Mathcad Software
Plotting with the aid of Mathcad
Graphical results of arithmetic means Ra
Discussions
Calculations of the overall uncertainty in the GUM method compared to the Monte Carlo method using the software GUMicComputer-Aided Metrology-CAM
Coordinate-measuring machine (CMM)
Morphology of the CMM
The CMM and its environment
Advantages of CMM in metrology
Commonly-used geometric models in dimensional metrology
Constructive solid geometry models
Boundary representation models (B-REP)
Hybrid models CSG/B-REP (solid + surfaces)
NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational Beta-Splines)
TTRS (Technologically and Topologically Related Surfaces) models
Real forms, real geometric elements, real geometrical surfaces
Nominal geometric elements
Modeling the ideal geometric form of a workpiece
Model of real geometric elements, reference surface (SR)
Substitution surfaces models
Description of styli and types of probing
Styli with ruby ball
Hemispherical-ended styli
Sharp styli or styli with small radius
Disc styli (or simply discs)
Cylindrical stylus
Accessories and styli extensions
Software and computers supporting the CMM
Geometric control
Surface control
Coordinates systems and probes calibration
Starting a B504B-Mitutoyo CMM
Number of probing points
Key measuring functions of the Mitutoyo B504B CMM
Measurements on CMM using the Cosmos software
Case of circle-to-circle distance
STATPAK-Win of Cosmos, Mitutoyo
Examples of applications using CMM
Compiling the technical file
Constitution of the CMM laboratory report under Cosmos (or other)
summary and future extensions of CMMsControl of Assembly and Transmission Elements
Introduction to the control of components for temporary assembly and elements for power transmission: threads, gears, and splines
Method of obtaining threads and tapping in mechanical manufacturing
General description of thread dimensioning
Designation of threads and tapped holes for blind holes
Helical surface for screw threads
Technological processes for tapping and its control (Go – Not Go)
Tapping (by hand) with tap wrench and set of taps
The main threads in the industry
SO Threads
American Standard pipe threads
The Whitworth thread
BRIGGS tapered threads; cone 6.25%
American Standard thread, NC and NF series
Pipe threads called GAS
Main threads implemented in Canada
Principles of threads control
Defects of the helical surface
Control, without measurement, of threads
Control of a thread pitch using ruler and gauge
Checking the straightness of tapping tools by squaring
Screws resistance and quality classes
Minimum torques for screws with diameters of 1 to 10 mm
Example of calculations of efforts on threads (North American concept)
Control of screw thread by mechanical and optical comparison
Laboratory example on threads control
Introduction to gear control
Parallel spur gears
Metrological control of the main types of gears
Spur gears with helical teeth
Helical gears with parallel axes
Parallel spur gears with helical teeth
Bevel or concurrent gears
Worm gears
Racks
Control of gears with a vernier calipers
Chordal thickness measurement
Over wire measurement
Measuring thickness of rack teeth
Introduction to spline control
Dimensional control of splines
Control of the geometric correction of splines
Woodruff key – standardized ANSI B17. 2-1967 (R1998)
Control of key-seats
Calculating the depth of the housing (groove) and the distance from the top of the keyControl of Materials Hardness Testing
Introduction to non-destructive testing
Measurements of hardness by indentation
Presentation of the main hardness tests
Principle and description of the Rockwell hardness
Comparison of indentation methods (Table 9.4)
Typical applications of Rockwell scales
Rockwell superficial hardness test
Rockwell hardness tests of plastics
Comparison between Shore and Rockwell hardness ball testing
Overall description of the Rockwell hardness testing machine
Brinell hardness test
Applied load and diameter of the ball
Thickness of the tested metal
Meyer hardness test (named after Rajakovico and Meyer)
Operating procedure for Brinell hardness test
Principle of the Vickers hardness test
Knoop hardness (HK)
Barcol hardness
Rebound hardness test by Shore test (scleroscope)
Comparison of the indenters for the Rockwell and Shore tests
Mohs hardness for minerals
Mohs scale of hardness minerals
How should the hardness of a mineral be measured?
RHD rubber hardness tester
Control of rubber and other elastomers by IRHD and Shore test
Comparison of the three main hardness tests and a practical approach for hardness testing: Brinell HB, Rockwell HR, and Vickers HV
Main mechanical properties of solid materials
Flow testing
Tensile testing of solid materials
Impact test for steels
Mechanical tests on plastic materials
Tensile strength, strain, and modulus ASTM D638 (ISO 527)
Flexural strength and modulus ASTM D 790 (ISO 178)
Impact test
Interpretation of resistance to impacts – ASTM compared to ISO
Izod impact strength ASTM D 256 (ISO 180)
Fatigue failure and dimensional metrology for the control of the dimensioning of materials assembled by welding
Fatigue testing
Tenacity
General tolerances for welded structures according to ISOThere is seriously no universal solution to conduct hardness tests
Some criteria for choosing hardness testing apparatus
Indentation reading mode
The expected resultOverall SummaryLexicon of terms frequently used in metrology
WarningAppendix